Blood Diamond Exploitation in Angola: History, Impact, and Modern Consequences

The story of blood diamonds in Angola is one of the most tragic and complex chapters in contemporary natural resource exploitation. Angola, a country blessed with abundant resources, has long been at the center of global diamond production. However, the exploitation of these precious stones, particularly during periods of conflict, has left an indelible mark on its people, society, and political structure. This article explores the history, mechanisms of exploitation, and long-term consequences of Angola's blood diamond industry, shedding light on the darker side of the global diamond trade.

1. Historical Context: The Roots of Conflict Diamonds in Angola

Angola's journey since its independence from Portugal in 1975 has been marked by turbulence. The end of colonial rule sparked a power struggle between several liberation movements, namely the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), and the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA). What began as a fight for independence quickly transformed into a decades-long civil war, exacerbated by the Cold War, with the MPLA backed by the Soviet Union and Cuba, and UNITA supported by the United States and South Africa.

Diamonds quickly became a crucial source of financing for both sides. The term "blood diamonds" (or "conflict diamonds") refers to gems extracted in war zones and sold to finance armed conflicts against governments, often leading to severe human rights violations. In Angola, these diamonds fueled violence and prolonged the civil war. By the 1990s, UNITA, which controlled large diamond-rich areas, used diamond revenues to acquire weapons and sustain its military campaign against the MPLA government.

The conflict eventually drew international attention, leading to sanctions imposed by the United Nations. In 1998, UN Security Council Resolution 1173 placed an embargo on the purchase of Angolan diamonds not certified by the government. However, the illegal diamond trade continued to thrive through black market channels, perpetuating the conflict.

2. Mechanisms of Exploitation: From Mines to Markets

At the heart of the blood diamond trade in Angola lies a network of informal and often illegal mining operations. The majority of Angola’s diamonds are found in the northeastern provinces, particularly in Lunda Norte and Lunda Sul. These regions, rich in alluvial diamond deposits, became the focus of both rebel groups and private security companies operating in partnership with corrupt government officials.

The exploitation system generally involves the following stages:

• Mining: Diamonds in Angola are frequently extracted through artisanal mining, involving small-scale miners using basic tools and manual labor. These miners, known as garimpeiros, work in dangerous conditions and receive minimal compensation for their labor.

• Security and Control: During the height of the civil war, rebel forces controlled vast diamond-producing areas. After the war, private security companies and military contractors were hired by the Angolan government to secure these regions. Companies like Executive Outcomes, a South African private military contractor, played a crucial role in expelling rebel forces from diamond-rich zones, though these operations were often marked by human rights abuses, including forced displacement, violence, and torture of local populations.

• Smuggling and Sales: Diamonds extracted from these regions frequently avoid official channels, entering the global market through illegal routes. Smugglers and middlemen move the stones across borders, particularly to countries like the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and Zambia, where they are sold to unscrupulous buyers. From there, the diamonds enter the international supply chain, eventually reaching jewelry stores worldwide.

3. Human Rights Violations: The Cost of Diamonds

The human cost of the blood diamond trade in Angola is undeniable. For local populations living in diamond-rich regions, the discovery of these precious stones brought not wealth but violence and exploitation. During the civil war and in the years that followed, reports of human rights violations were widespread:

• Forced Labor: Artisanal miners are often forced to work in deplorable conditions. In many cases, local populations were coerced into mining diamonds for armed groups or private security forces, receiving little to no payment for their labor.

• Violence and Torture: As detailed in Rafael Marques' seminal work, Diamantes de Sangue: Corrupção e Tortura em Angola, torture, beatings, and summary executions were common practices in Angola's diamond fields. Soldiers and security personnel responsible for controlling these areas used extreme violence to maintain order and ensure the continued extraction of diamonds.

• Forced Displacement: Thousands of people were displaced from their homes in diamond-rich areas. Many were forced to flee due to violence or were evicted to make way for mining operations. The resulting humanitarian crises were exacerbated by a lack of international attention and the Angolan government’s failure to provide adequate support for those affected.

4. The Kimberley Process: A Global Response

In response to the global outcry over blood diamonds, the international community sought to address the issue through the creation of the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme (KPCS) in 2003. The Kimberley Process is a joint initiative involving governments, civil society, and the diamond industry, designed to prevent conflict diamonds from entering the mainstream market.

Angola became a participant in the Kimberley Process, and the certification scheme did bring some improvement in the transparency of the diamond trade. However, the Kimberley Process has been criticized for its limited scope. The certification focuses only on preventing diamonds from funding armed conflicts, but it does not address broader human rights violations, corruption, or environmental destruction associated with the diamond industry.

In Angola, while the Kimberley Process has reduced the flow of conflict diamonds to some extent, reports of illegal mining, human rights abuses, and corruption continue to emerge, suggesting that the root causes of exploitation have not been fully addressed.

5. Modern Consequences: Economic and Social Impact

Today, Angola remains one of the largest diamond producers in the world, yet the wealth generated by this industry has not trickled down to the general population. Instead, Angola ranks among the most unequal countries globally, with a vast disparity between the rich elite and the impoverished majority.

The diamond industry in Angola is dominated by state-owned enterprises and joint ventures with foreign companies. Although the end of the civil war in 2002 brought some political stability, the industry remains plagued by corruption and mismanagement. Revenues from diamonds continue to enrich a small group of political elites, while the majority of Angolans living in diamond-producing regions struggle to survive on subsistence wages.

Moreover, environmental degradation caused by unregulated mining practices has further devastated local communities. Diamond extraction has led to the destruction of rivers, forests, and farmlands, leaving behind scarred landscapes and impoverished ecosystems.

Conclusion: A Call for Accountability and Reform

The story of blood diamonds in Angola serves as a stark reminder of the human and environmental toll of unchecked resource exploitation. While international initiatives like the Kimberley Process have made some progress in addressing the problem of conflict diamonds, much more needs to be done to ensure that the exploitation of Angola’s resources benefits its people rather than perpetuating cycles of violence, corruption, and poverty.

The global diamond trade must take greater responsibility in ensuring that diamonds sold on the market are not only conflict-free but also ethically sourced, with full respect for human rights and environmental sustainability. For Angola, the challenge lies in creating a system of governance that prioritizes transparency, accountability, and equitable distribution of wealth, so that the country’s natural resources can serve as a foundation for lasting peace and shared prosperity.

By delving deeper into the mechanisms of exploitation and advocating for systemic change, we honor the countless lives affected by the blood diamond trade in Angola and recognize the need for a more just and humane approach to resource extraction.

Works Cited

1. Marques, Rafael. Diamantes de Sangue: Corrupção e Tortura em Angola. Tinta-da-China, 2011.

2. United Nations Security Council. "Resolution 1173 (1998)." United Nations, 1998.

3. Global Witness. A Rough Trade: The Role of Companies and Governments in the Angolan Conflict. Global Witness, 1998.

4. Kimberley Process Certification Scheme. "The Kimberley Process: Certifying Conflict-Free Diamonds," 2003.

5. Human Rights Watch. Some Transparency, No Accountability: The Use of Oil Revenue in Angola and Its Impact on Human Rights. Human Rights Watch, 2004.

6. International Crisis Group. Angola’s Choice: Reform or Regress. ICG Africa Briefing No. 46, 2008.

7. Smillie, Ian, Lansana Gberie, and Ralph Hazleton. The Heart of the Matter: Sierra Leone, Diamonds & Human Security. Partnership Africa Canada, 2000.

8. Cilliers, Jakkie, and Christian Dietrich (Eds.). Angola’s War Economy: The Role of Oil and Diamonds. Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies, 2000.

9. Executive Outcomes. War for Diamonds: Private Military Contractors in Angola. Executive Outcomes Archive, 1997.

10. Shaxson, Nicholas. Poisoned Wells: The Dirty Politics of African Oil. Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.